Educations for Empowering

Before we discuss the key points about the concept of empowerment, we should first review the development concept which basically aims to improve human welfare in the broadest sense.
Development according to the literature of development economics is often defined as a continuous process of increase in real capital income through increasing the number and productivity of resources. In view of that was born the concepts of development as economic growth. The theory of economic growth can be traced at least since the 18th century.
According to Adam Smith (1776) the growth process begins when the economy is capable of performing the division of labor (division of labor). The division of labor will increase productivity which in turn will increase revenue. Adam Smith also highlighted the importance of economies of scale. By expanding the market, will open new innovations which in turn will encourage periuasan division of labor and economic growth. After Adam Smith's ideas emerged that seek review of growth boundaries (limits to growth), among others, Malthus (1798) and Ricardo (1917). After Adam Smith, Malthus, and Ricardo-called classical flow, developing modern economic growth theory with its variations which basically can be divided into two, namely that emphasizes the importance of capital accumulation (physical capital formation) and increase the quality of human resources (human capital ). One view of the huge impact and then until now is a growth model developed by Harrod (1948) and Domar (1946).
In essence, this model rests on the premise Keynes (1936) who emphasized the importance of encouraging the growth of demand in the long run. In the Harrod-Domar model, economic growth will be determined by two basic elements, namely the level of savings (investment) and capital productivity (capital output ratio). In order to grow in a sustainable, people in an economy must have a savings that is a source of investment. The greater the savings, which means the greater the investment, the higher economic growth. Conversely, the lower the higher the productivity of capital or capital output ratio, the lower economic growth. Unlike the Harrod-Domar is apply pressure to the importance of the role of capital, Arthur Lewis (1954) with a surplus model of labour put pressure on the role of the population.
In this model there is assumed that labor supply is highly elastic. This means employers can increase production by hiring more labor without having to raise the level of wages. Increased revenues can be obtained by the owners of capital will encourage new investments because this group has the desire to save and invest (the marginal propensity to save and invest) higher compared with the workers. High levels of investment in turn will promote economic growth. Meanwhile, developing a so-called neoclassical growth model. Neoclassical growth theory began to incorporate elements of technology that is believed to be influential in a country's economic growth (Solow, 1957).
In neoclassical theory, technology is considered as exogenous factors that are available for use by all countries in the world. In an open economy, where all factors of production can move freely and technology can be utilized by every state, the growth of all countries in the world will be converging, which means the gap will be reduced. Subsequent growth theory tries to find other factors outside the capital and human work, which encourages economic growth. One theory holds that investors tation of human resources have a considerable influence on the increased productivity.
According to Becker (1964) improved labor productivity can be encouraged through education and training and improving health status. Human capital theory is further strengthened by various empirical studies, among others, for the United States by Kendrick (1976). Furthermore, growth varies between countries that build views on technology delivery rather than as an exogenous factor, but as an endogenous factor that can be influenced by various policy variables (Romer, 1990). Sources in the theory of endogenous growth is the increasing stock of knowledge and new ideas in the economy that encourages the growth of creativity and initiative embodied in innovative and productive activities. These all require quality human resources are increased. Transformation of knowledge and new ideas can occur through international trade, investment, licensing, consulting, communications, education, and activities of R & D. Regarding the role of trade in growth, Nurkse (1953) show that trade is an engine of growth during the 19th century for countries that are now included in the group of developed countries like the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. In that century the most advanced industrial activities are concentrated in the UK. the rapid industrial development and population growth in the UK are poor natural resources has increased the demand for raw materials and food from the countries mentioned above. Oengan Thus, the growth that occurred in Britain spread to Fain countries through international trade. Then we see that economic progress in the newly industrialized countries are poor natural resources in the second half of the 20th century, such as Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore, also driven by international trade. In group theory this growth there is an important view shared by many thinkers of development, namely the theory of the stages of growth. Two of them are important is of Rostow (1960) and Chenery-Syrquin (1975).
According to Rostow, the transformation from a backward country into the developed countries can be explained through a sequence of levels or stages of development through which all countries. Rostow suggests five stages through which a country in its development process, ie the stage of Traditional Society, Preconditions for Growth, The Take-off, The Drive to Maturity, and The Age of High Mass Consumption. According to the thinking H.B. Chenery and M. Syrquin (1975), which is the development of thought from Colin Clark and Kuznets, development of the economy will experience a transformation (consumption, production and employment), from an economy dominated by agriculture sector to be dominated by industrial and service sectors. The views developed in theories of development especially in the economic field is flowing more profusely in the direction of human (and in the context of the plural in the direction of society or people) as the center of attention and target as well as the main actors of development (subject and object at once). One of expectation or belief of followers of growth theory is that the growth will be enjoyed by the public until 'at the very bottom layer. However, the experience of the construction in three decades (1940-1970) shows that what happens is people in the bottom layer does not always enjoy the stream of development results as expected that. Even in many countries widening socioeconomic disparities.
This is due because even if income and consumption is increasing, community groups sudan good condition and more capable, more able to take advantage of the opportunity, partly because of the favorable position (privileged), so it will get all or most of the fruits of development. Oengan Thus, the rich get richer and the poor remain poor could become even poorer. Way of looking at the top dominate development thinking (mainstream economics) decade of the 50's and 60's with its main characteristic that development is a planned effort to pursue economic growth in aggregate. And, should also be aware that this kind of thinking is still a lot of followers and supporters to date, although the evidence suggests that the theoretical test empirisdan trickle-down process never materialized, especially in countries that are developing. Therefore, developing a variety of thought to look for other alternatives to the paradigm which is solely a member! emphasis on growth. So growing school of thought known as social development paradigm whose goal is to conduct a more equitable development. One method commonly used in assessing the impact of development on the welfare of society is to study the distribution of income.
Revenue sharing based on income classes (the size distribution of income) can be measured using Lorenz curves or Gini index. In addition to income distribution, impacts and development outcomes can also be measured by looking at poverty level (poverty) in a country. Unlike the income distribution that uses a relative concept, analysis of the concept of absolute poverty or absolute poverty. Development be fair, it was realized that the growth remains important. Efforts to integrate the concept of growth and equity is a challenge that the answer is not constantly sought in development studies. A model, called the equity with growth or redistribution with growth (RWG) was developed based on a study dispensed by the World Bank in 1974 (Chenery, et al, 1974;. The idea basically is that the government should influence patterns of development in such a way that the producers low income (which in many countries beriokasi in rural and urban small producers) will have the opportunity to increase revenue and simultaneously receive the necessary economic resources. Still in search of answers to the challenges to justice paradigm in development, evolving approach to basic human needs or basic human needs (BHN) (Streeten et a /., 1981). BHN strategy structured to provide basic goods and services for the poor, such as basic food, water and sanitation, health care, basic education, and housing. While the RWG and BHN have similar goals, they differ in terms of policy are taken. RWG emphasis on improving productivity and purchasing power of poor communities, while BHN emphasis on providing public services with a guarantee to the poor in order to obtain such services. The problem of unemployment is also increasing in order to get shutdown economic development requires the availability of equity. Todaro (1985) suggests that there is a strong correlation between unemployment, income inequality, and poverty. In general, those who can not get a job on a regular basis are those that are included in the group of poor people. Those who obtain jobs they are continuous medium and high income. Thus, solving the unemployment problem can solve the problems of poverty and income distribution. Some experts also argue that the equitable distribution of income would increase job creation (Seers, 1970).
According to this theory the goods consumed by the poor tends to be more labor intensive than the consumption of higher-income communities. Thus, the equitable distribution of income will cause a shift in the pattern of demand which in turn will create employment opportunities. In the framework of developmental theory of political economy and development should also be noted that ideological and political aspects also influence the thinking of developing. One of these is the dependency theory that was developed primarily based on the state of development in Latin America in the 1950s. The main characteristic of this theory is that his analysis is based on the interaction between internal and external structure in a system.
According to this theory (Baran, 1957), ketertoelakangan Latin American countries occurred in precapitalist society when incorporated into the capitalist world economic system. Thus, society loses its autonomy and become the "periphery" (periphery) countries of the capitalist metropolis. Region (country) edges become "the colonies" the metropolitan countries. They only serve as a producer of raw materials for the needs of local industry (country) metropolitan area, and vice versa is finished consumer goods produced by industries in the metropolitan countries. Thus, the dependence structure which arises is that almost no obstacles can be overcome and also impede the development of the self. It is noteworthy that there are two streams in the theory of dependency, namely the flow of Marxist and Neo-Marxist, as well as the flow of non-Marxist.
Marxist and Neo-Marxist analysis using the framework of the Marxist theory of imperialism. This flow does not distinguish sharply which includes the internal structure or external structure, because both these structures, regarded as a factor derived from the world capitalist system itself. In addition, this flow takes the perspective of international class struggle between the owners of capital (the capitalists) on the one hand and workers on the other. To improve the lot of workers, it is necessary to take the initiative to topple existing power. Therefore, according to this flow, recipe development to the countryside is a revolution (Frank, 1967). While the second stream, saw the problem dependency of national or regional perspective. According to this flow structure and internal conditions are generally seen as a factor derived from the system itself, although the internal structure of this in the past or present are influenced by factors outside the country (see for example DosSantos and Bernstein, 1969; Tavares and Serra, 1974; as well as the Cariola and Sunkel, 1982). Therefore, a subject that needs to be built is the "nation" or "the people" in a country (nation building).
In the face of development challenges the concept of country or nation is necessary as a basis to conduct reforms. The view that development should not only pay attention to socio-economic objectives, are widespread. The issues of democracy and human rights became the talk also in development studies (among others see Bauzon, 1992). Goulet, (1977) who studied philosophy and ethics of development, for example, explores the development process must provide (1) the creation of "new solidarity" which encourages development that stems from below (grassroots oriented), (2) preserve cultural diversity and the environment, and (3) uphold the dignity and freedom for mankind and society. In discussing the various paradigms that seek the path towards equitable development also needs to put forward the theory of people-centered development
Postindustrial era to face the conditions that are very different from reality-industrial era and the present condition of potentials that are important to stabilize growth and human welfare, equity and sustainability of development itself (Korten, 1984). The dominant logic of this paradigm is a human ecology is balanced, with the main power sources in the form of information resources and creative initiatives are not inexhaustible, and whose main purpose is human growth is defined as a higher manifestation of the potential -human potential. This paradigm gives a role to individuals rather than as an object, but as actors who set goals, control resources, and direct the processes that affect their lives. Development of people-centered initiative to appreciate and consider the people and local distinctiveness. The latter paradigm, which can not be removed from the paradigm of social development and the various views on it which has been discussed earlier, is the paradigm of human development.
According to this approach, the main goal of development is to create an environment that allows people to enjoy life creative, healthy and live longer. Although simple, this goal is often forgotten by the desire for increased goods and capital accumulation. A lot of development experience shows that the linkage between economic growth and human development does not happen by itself. These experiences reminded that the growth of production and income (wealth) is only a tool only, while the ultimate goal of development should be human himself. According to this view the principal goal of development is human choices (Ul Haq, 1985).
This understanding has two sides. First, the establishment human capacities as reflected in health, knowledge and expertise increase. Secondly, the use of capability that is already held to work, to enjoy life or to be active in cultural activities, social, and political. Human development paradigm yangholistik disebutsebagai a concept has four important elements, namely: (1) adding produktivitas, (2) equal opportunity, (3) sustainability of development; and (4) human empowerment. The concept was initiated and supported by UNDP, which developed the Human Development Index (Human Development Index). This index is a composite indicator / composite which consists of three sizes, namely health (as a measure of longevity), education (as a measure of knowledge) and zero income levels (as a measure of living standards). Still in the early stages of development now muncuf also the idea of ​​sustainable development are closely related to the growing prosperity continues to increase from generation to generation, collateral development equality between generations.
In this concept the use and results of the use of natural resources and environmentally damaging sources does not count as a contribution to growth but as a reduction aseet. Important to notice this, because the rich nations today, could become the most impoverished in the hereafter, like the Egyptians, Palestinians, and India. Thus, different schools of thought in development studies, which evolved over the years. Although not satisfactory to some, the concept of human development can be considered the most complete and already is said to be a synthesis of previous approaches. Actually a similar view of this we have started since the beginning of development.
Therefore, since GBHN First in First Long Term Development (PJP I), we have formulated the essence of national development is human development as a whole and the whole society. Since Repelita II, we have confirmed the development strategy that rests on the Trilogy Development, which combines growth, equity, and stability, as the keys to the success of development. Equalization program in the framework of this trilogy in PJP I we describe the eight distribution channels.
b. Inequality Problem
The reality is that despite the many results achieved in the PJP I, the gap problem fundamentally we can not solve. One out of every seven poor people of Indonesia at all. From the 1990 Population Census is known 3.2 percent unemployed labor force, approximately 36.6 percent of the working population, work less than 35 hours per week or underemployed, and more than 77 percent of workers only educated to primary school. More than 97 percent of business units in 1992, multi less than Rp 50 million per year. One in two (51.6 percent) households are smallholder farmers, who controlled the agricultural iahan less than half a hectare. The number of landless farmers is not reduced, but even increased. People in rural and lagging regions such as in many parts of eastern Indonesia and also in some parts of the western region, living in another world, a very backward and very far away from modern life. In terms of income distribution as measured by household consumption expenditure, it appears that high-income people's income levels have increased more rapidly than the increase in incomes of low-income population groups.
SUSENAS data indicate that the average growth rate of household consumption expenditure for 40 percent of the lowest monthly income in the period 1984-1993 was 3.8 percent per year, while the average consumption expenditure of households nationwide during the same period increased 4 , 8 per cent per year. Further socio-economic system data sheet (SNSE) in 1980 and 1990 showed no significant shift in the percentage of the population of the upper class and lower class. The percentage of upper class population remains around 42 percent and a population of about 58 percent lower classes. When compared with the average income of the poor, the poverty line based on the average expenditure rataper capita per month in rural areas around Rp 13,300 and Rp 20,600 in urban areas in 1990, the number of poor people there are as many as 27.2 million (15.1 per cent ). In 1993 the poverty line per capita per month in rural areas around Rp 18,250 and Rp 27,900 in urban areas, the number of poor was reduced to 25.9 million people (13.7 percent). Although the number of poor people continues to decline, but still quite large, because one of every seven people in Indonesia are still living below the poverty line. In addition, the slower rate of decline for three years only a decline of 1.3 million, and in terms of percentage decline only 1.4 percent.
By comparing these figures it can be concluded that, first, the number of poor is reduced, secondly, the percentage of lower and upper class groups has not changed much, and third, the level of income of the poor population increased but high-income groups increased more rapidly. Thus, it can be said that although the building has been widely demonstrated success, but there are gaps Intergroup income residents who felt increasingly widened. The issues we must confront this gap in the PJP II. Though dalarrf PJP II era we've entered a new world, different from what we know so far. This new era will be characterized by openness and competition, the odds may not be put to good use by the economically weaker groups.
In such circumstances, the more likely melebamya immense gap. Iwan Jaya Azis, for example, in his inaugural address as professor at the Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia also indicate his concerns that free trade should not be beneficial temadap improvement of income distribution (Azis, 1996). And we take responsibility to achieve social justice for all citizens as one of the goals we create an independent state. If the 1945 Constitution reads well, understood the history of its compilation, and studied the background of the thinking of the constituent, it is clear that the republic is based on the spirit of democracy. In the economic sphere expressly mandated by the Economic Democracy. Economic Democracy literally means the sovereignty of the people in the field of economic life. With more pointedly, economic democracy is the economic activity carried out from the people, by the people, and for the people. Or with the formulation of the Constitution 45: "Production is done by all, for all or inspection under the leadership of members of the community. The prosperity of society that preferred not prosperity of a people". Progress to be pursued through the national development, economic development, should improve the prosperity on the basis of social justice, or in the words of the Constitution 45: "prosperity for all people!" Direction of economic development as desired by the constitution it can not happen by itself. That is, progress is measured through national production does not automatically guarantee that this growth reflects the increasing prosperity evenly.
The main problem, as has been shown above, is the imbalance in the ability and opportunity to take advantage of opportunities that are open in the development process. With the development process that continues berianjut, precisely the imbalance that can lead to further expand the growing gap. In an attempt to overcome the challenges of community empowerment strategy was laid. Basic view is that efforts should be aimed directly at the root of the problem, namely to increase the ability of the people. Baojan left in the community should be enhanced by developing and potential dynamically, in other words, empower them. In practical effort is the deployment of resources to develop the economic potential of the people this will increase people's productivity so that both human resources and natural resources around the existence of the people can be improved productivity.
Thus, the people and their environment in a participatory able to generate and foster economic added value. People are poor or who are in a position not yet fully exploited its potential to increase not only economic, but also dignity, dignity, confidence, and pride. Thus, it can be interpreted that empowerment does not just grow and develop value-added economy, but also the added value of social and cultural added value. Thus, popular participation increases people's emancipation.

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